Summary
Article scope: in this article I’m going to introduce the concept of knowledge structures with particular reference to how it relates to non-fiction books.
Why the concept of knowledge structures is important: there are a limited number of standard structures that we use to understand the world and to order our knowledge. I call these structures ‘knowledge structures’. Having an explicit concept of knowledge structures allows us to create an x-ray of underlying order (and sometimes disorder) that we might otherwise miss.
What is a knowledge structure?: knowledge structures can be defined as ‘arrangements of knowledge elements’. Knowledge elements can, in turn, be defined as ‘the constituent parts of what we are thinking about or discussing’.
The different categories and types of knowledge structures: knowledge structures can be divided into three categories:
- Space/time: knowledge structures related to space and/or time
- Non-space/time: knowledge structures that aren’t related to space or time
- Meta: the only meta knowledge structure is the summary. It is not a knowledge structure in itself but represents a condensed version of other knowledge structures.
What differentiates knowledge structures?: knowledge structures are differentiated from each other by the nature of the relationship between the individual knowledge elements that make them up.
Key distinctions: there are two key distinctions:
- Organising/supporting knowledge structures: organising structures are the higher-level knowledge structures that organise and give meaning to the lower-level supporting structures
- Organisation/content knowledge structures: knowledge structures can relate both to the organisation of a book and to the content of a book.
Article scope
The concept of knowledge structures can be applied to all forms of communication such as conversations, presentations, lectures, papers and blog posts. However, in this article I’m going to introduce the concept of knowledge structures with particular reference to how it relates to non-fiction books. Further articles in this series will look at how the concept can be used practically to make non-fiction books better for learning.
Why the concept of knowledge structures is important
There are a limited number of standard structures that we use to understand the world and to order our knowledge. I call these structures ‘knowledge structures’.
We all draw on at least an implicit grasp of structure. However, having an explicit concept of knowledge structures allows us to create an x-ray of underlying order (and sometimes disorder) that we might otherwise miss.
It is my hypothesis that applying the concept of knowledge structures to non-fiction books creates the opportunity for innovations that address some of the problems that many readers complain about at the moment.
What is a knowledge structure?
The most relevant definition of ‘structure’ for our purposes comes from Dictionary.com: a structure is an “arrangement of parts, elements, or constituents”. So we can define a knowledge structure as ‘an arrangement of knowledge elements’.
Knowledge elements can, in turn, be defined as ‘the constituent parts of what we are thinking about or discussing’.
There are many different types of knowledge elements. Examples include:
| Ideas | Goals | Beliefs |
| Facts | People | Behaviours |
| Concepts | Places | Definitions |
| Events | Things | Strategies |
| Dates | Objects | |
| Categories | Values |
Knowledge structures can be seen as combinations of individual knowledge elements ordered in different ways.
The different categories and types of knowledge structures
Knowledge structures can be divided into three categories:
- Space/time: knowledge structures related to space and/or time
- Non-space/time: knowledge structures that aren’t related to space or time
- Meta: the only meta knowledge structure is the summary. It is not a knowledge structure in itself but represents a condensed version of other knowledge structures.
1) Space/time knowledge structures
Cause and effect
The cause and effect knowledge structure contains elements that are linked by causation: one or a multiple set of causes that result in one or a multiple set of results.
It’s one of the most important knowledge structures for human beings. It’s been critical for humanity to understand that events have discoverable causal factors instead of being caused randomly or by mysterious supernatural forces. Identifying causes allows humans to alter behaviour in order to achieve more desired results and fewer undesired results.
The cause and effect structure often exists as part of an argument knowledge structure. An important facet of arguments is to establish whether the relationship between a set of variables is one of causation or correlation.
Dynamic system
A dynamic system is a combination of elements whose output changes over time due to the existence of feedback loops. Dynamic systems are intrinsic to the working of our physical, biological and social worlds which means they are another critical knowledge structure.
Process/sequence
Processes, procedures and sequences are organised to achieve particular ends. The process/sequence knowledge structure connects the steps or behaviours involved in a process, procedure or sequence. This knowledge structure, along with the dynamic system knowledge structure, is a core part in teaching skills and capabilities.
Timeline
The timeline knowledge structure links events or outcomes in terms of their occurrence across time. It can also be used to show progress over time such as the chronology of child development.
While a timeline is often shown as a graphic, it can also be a textual description of events or changes over time.
Story/narrative
The story knowledge structure involves an account of events and experiences in which a character or characters deals with challenges to reach an end point.
Our lives are saturated by stories and they are one of the most effective ways of conveying knowledge and information. Humans find it easy to take in meaning through the beginning-middle-end structure of stories and so they can be very powerful.
Narrative differs slightly from story in that it focuses more on a series of events rather than the actions and reactions of characters.
Spatial map
A spatial map is a visual representation of the spatial relationship between elements. Obviously geographical maps are the best known example. However spatial maps can describe anything that exists in space, such as the human body, a car engine or the interior of a house.
Spatial maps represent elements that exist in real life. This is in contrast to conceptual maps (also known as diagrams). I don’t consider conceptual maps as knowledge structures in themselves but rather as a visual representation of other knowledge structures.
2) Non-space/time knowledge structures
Argument
The argument knowledge structure is another critical knowledge structure as it is at the heart of most discussion and thinking. Its essence is the making of claims which are supported by reasons, which need to be backed up by evidence. Arguments are often underpinned by values, assumptions or beliefs, which can be either explicitly expressed or implicit.
Static system
A static system is made up of parts which make up a whole which is different to the sum of the individual parts. It differs from a dynamic system in that there is no feedback loop. This means that the system doesn’t change over time. A book can be considered as a static system unless subsequent editions are produced in response to feedback or changes in the subject matter. At that point it becomes a dynamic system.
Theme/framework
A theme is a device which organises content by borrowing the meaning of a metaphor, concept, fact or story. A framework is slightly different in that it is a structure self-created by an author to organise the content.
Content structure
All pieces of content have a structure ie. how the different elements or topics relate to each other. Unless a content structure is explicitly described, learners will have to spend their limited cognitive energy in having to work out the content structure for themselves.
Classification
The classification knowledge structure involves the sorting of items into groups or categories using specified criteria.
This may seem to be a rather uninteresting knowledge structure. However, the process of deciding which elements fit within which categories can be considered one of the foundations of knowledge. A book about, say, fascism is dependent on a clear understanding on what criteria constitute fascism and therefore which governments or movements can be defined as fascist and which can’t.
This knowledge structure is also known as a taxonomy.
Ontology
The concept of ‘ontology’ as a knowledge structure comes from computer science. An ontology describes the contents of a domain in a structured way through the identification of categories, instances and properties — and how they all inter-relate.
Ontologies aren’t often used as explicit knowledge structures within non-fiction books. However, it can be useful to develop an ontological map for individual books prior to writing the text in order to find ways of simplifying, clarifying and standardising explanations and arguments.
Metaphor/analogy
A metaphor is a knowledge structure in which one element is described as being similar to a different element in order to illuminate the characteristics of the first element.
An analogy is related in that it uses a comparison between two elements to illustrate a point.
Context
It’s easy to focus on an individual element and ignore the wider environment the element exists in. The context knowledge structure widens the focus to show the broader setting of an element.
Comparison
The comparison knowledge structure provides an investigation of the similarity and difference between two or more different concepts or topics. I believe it’s an under-used knowledge structure for authors given the power of comparison to throw ideas and facts into sharp relief.
Explanation
An explanation can be defined as ‘making a topic clear and intelligible by elaborating on the details and providing structure and context’.
This is a foundational knowledge structure in that it provides information about concepts or facts that can be used as a building block for deeper understanding and complexity.
Description
A description can be defined as ‘an account of something tangible or intangible, such as a person, place, object, event or experience’.
Other knowledge structures will often include explanations and descriptions in order to provide readers with needed detail.
Relationships
The relationships knowledge structure shows the specific relationships between individual elements or entities such as in a family or a business.
3) Meta knowledge structure
Summary
A summary can be defined as ‘a brief outline of the main points of something longer’. It’s a meta knowledge structure rather than a knowledge structure in itself as it represents a condensed version of other knowledge structures.
What differentiates knowledge structures?
Knowledge structures are differentiated from each other by the nature of the relationship between the individual knowledge elements that make them up.
For example, each time-based knowledge structure has a different type of connection to time:
- a simple cause and effect structure connect two events with a causal relationship between one and the other
- a process comprises a set of sequentially organised steps that are designed to achieve a particular goal
- the key time-based aspect of dynamic systems is the existence of one or more feedback loops. This means that the state of some later elements in the system will have an impact on previously active elements
- a timeline will describe a series of events distributed over time
- stories and narratives are defined by the fact that present events and actions will have an impact on subsequent ones.
Non-space/time knowledge structures also have a wide range of types of relationship between their elements:
- an argument at its simplest is the relationship between claims, reasons and evidence
- classification involves the sorting of the component elements into a number of categories
- comparison involves defining a relationship of similarity or difference between two or more different concepts or topics.
- the explanation knowledge structure involves elaborating on topics or facts.
Key distinctions
There are two key distinctions that are important for understanding knowledge structures.
i. Organising/supporting knowledge structures
The distinction between organising and supporting knowledge structures introduces a hierarchical element to the concept.
Organising structures are the higher-level knowledge structures that organise and give meaning to lower-level supporting structures.
Take the example of a book about the causes of the Second World War. The knowledge structure that organises the totality of the content will be an argument. The author will make claims about the war’s causes, which will need to be backed up by reasons and evidence.
However bald statements of claims, reasons and evidence would on their own be quite boring. Therefore, there is also a need for supporting knowledge structures to illuminate and elaborate aspects of the argument.
Here are some of the supporting knowledge structures that one might be expect to appear in such a book.
Timeline. An investigation into the causes of the 2nd World War is very likely to have a timeline with relevant events organised in date order.
Story/narrative. Story may feature in terms of explaining how individual political leaders reacted to what occurred. Narrative may feature as an account of the events that led up to the outbreak of the war.
Spatial map. Most books about the causes of the 2nd World War will show maps of important changes such as the aftermath of the 1st World War, showing the German situation after Versailles and the other territorial changes in Europe.
Classification. One useful way to classify causes is to to divide them into proximate (most recent) causes and ultimate causes.
Metaphor. Metaphors were used by protagonists in the events. For example, the stab-in-the-back metaphor was used by the Nazis as a conspiracy theory to suggest that the German army in the 1st World War was not defeated on the battlefield but was instead sold out by politicians and agitators, who were known using another metaphor as the ‘November criminals’.
Explanation. Dotted throughout the book or chapter is likely to be explanations of important concepts like the acquisition of ‘living space'(Lebensraum) and appeasement, and key events like the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the Munich Agreement of 1938.
Description. There could also be descriptions of how Germans experienced their lives post-World War 1, which will be important for providing reasons for the growing support for the Nazi party.
Higher-level organising knowledge structures are given meaning, depth and interest through the coherent use of supporting knowledge structures.
It’s important to recognise that a knowledge structure can be an organising structure on one level but can also be a supporting structure to a knowledge structure on a higher level. For example, a story might organise supporting description and explanation structures. However it could also play a supporting role in a higher-level argument.
ii. Organisation/content knowledge structures
Another important distinction to note is that knowledge structures can relate both to:
- the organisation of a book: this includes knowledge structures like content structure, system and argument, which relate to how the structure of a book is organised
- the content of a book: content knowledge structures might include timelines, cause and effect, explanation, description, classification, story etc.
They are not mutually exclusive. For example, the content structure can be used both for the organisation of the contents of the book being written as well for a description of another text that is being discussed in the book.
The process/sequence knowledge structure is used in deciding the sequence of a book’s contents. However, for skill development books, it can also be used to describe the content of a process that readers need to learn.
Part 2
Part 2 of this series of articles, Using the Knowledge Organisation Hierarchy, will look at how the concept of knowledge structures can be used in practice.